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A sagittal plane extends vertically through Anatomical Position the body dividing it into right and left portions buy extra super viagra 200mg with visa. A midsagittal (me- All terms of direction that describe the relationship of one body dian) plane is a sagittal plane that passes lengthwise through the part to another are made in reference to the anatomical posi- midplane of the body generic 200mg extra super viagra free shipping, dividing it equally into right and left halves. In the anatomical position, the body is erect, the feet are Coronal, or frontal, planes also pass lengthwise and divide the body parallel to each other and flat on the floor, the eyes are directed forward, and the arms are at the sides of the body with the palms of the hands turned forward and the fingers pointed straight coronal: L. Body Organization and © The McGraw−Hill Anatomy, Sixth Edition Organization, and the Anatomical Nomenclature Companies, 2001 Human Organism 34 Unit 2 Terminology, Organization, and the Human Organism (a) (b) (c) FIGURE 2. Visually observing the body to note any clini- cal symptoms, such as abnormal skin color, swelling, or Directional terms are used to locate structures and regions of the rashes. Other observations may include needle marks on body relative to the anatomical position. A summary of direc- the skin, irregular breathing rates, or abnormal behavior. Applying the fingers with firm pressure to the surface of the body to feel surface landmarks, lumps, tender Clinical Procedures spots, or pulsations. Tapping sharply on various locations on the anatomical structure and function in a living individual. The thorax or abdomen to detect resonating vibrations as an most common of these are as follows: aid in locating excess fluids or organ abnormalities. Body Organization and © The McGraw−Hill Anatomy, Sixth Edition Organization, and the Anatomical Nomenclature Companies, 2001 Human Organism Chapter 2 Body Organization and Anatomical Nomenclature 35 BODY REGIONS The human body is divided into regions and specific local areas that can be identified on the surface. Each region contains internal or- gans, the locations of which are anatomically and clinically important. Objective 11 List the regions of the body and the principal local areas that make up each region. Objective 12 Explain why it is important to be able to describe the body areas and regions in which major internal organs are located. The human body is divided into several regions that can be identified on the surface of the body. Learning the terms that refer to these regions now will make it easier to learn the names of underlying structures later. The major body regions are the head, neck, trunk, upper extremity, and lower extremity (fig. The identifying names for specific surface regions of the face are based on associated organs—for example, the orbital (eye), nasal (nose), oral (mouth), and auricular (ear) regions—or underlying bones—for example, FIGURE 2. Neck The neck, referred to as the cervical region, supports the head and permits it to move. Listening to the sounds that various organs ing the neck region can be found in chapter 10. One test of a reflex mecha- Trunk nism involves tapping a predetermined tendon with a reflex hammer and noting the response. The trunk, or torso, is the portion of the body to which the neck and upper and lower extremities attach. Discuss the value of CT scans in making a clinical assessment Thorax of a visceral organ. What do we mean when we say that directional terms are referred to as the chest. The mammary region of the thorax sur- relative and must be used in reference to a body structure rounds the nipple and in sexually mature females is enlarged as or a body in anatomical position? Body Organization and © The McGraw−Hill Anatomy, Sixth Edition Organization, and the Anatomical Nomenclature Companies, 2001 Human Organism 36 Unit 2 Terminology, Organization, and the Human Organism TABLE 2. Inferior (caudal) Away from the head; toward the bottom The neck is inferior to the head. Anterior (ventral) Toward the front The navel is on the anterior side of the body. Posterior (dorsal) Toward the back The kidneys are posterior to the intestine. Lateral Away from the midline of the body The ears are lateral to the nose. Internal (deep) Away from the surface of the body The brain is internal to the cranium.

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Explain how multicellular glands are classified according to Characteristics and Classification their mechanism of secretion cheap extra super viagra 200 mg free shipping. It sup- ports other tissues or binds them together and provides for the metabolic needs of all body organs discount extra super viagra 200 mg fast delivery. Certain types of connective tissue store nutritional substances; other types manufacture pro- holocrine: Gk. Histology © The McGraw−Hill Anatomy, Sixth Edition of the Body Companies, 2001 90 Unit 3 Microscopic Structure of the Body Mesenchymal cell Matrix (a) (b) FIGURE 4. Although connective tissue varies widely in structure and Embryonic Connective Tissue function, all types of connective tissue have similarities. With the exception of mature cartilage, connective tissue is highly vas- The embryonic period of development, which lasts 6 weeks cular and well nourished. It is able to replicate and, by so doing, (from the start of the third to the end of the eighth week), is is responsible for the repair of body organs. Unlike epithelial characterized by extensive tissue differentiation and organ forma- tissue, which is composed of tightly fitted cells, connective tissue tion. At the beginning of the embryonic period, all connective contains considerably more matrix (intercellular material) than tissue looks alike and is referred to as mesenchyme (mez′en-kı¯m). Connective tissue does not occur on free surfaces of body Mesenchyme is undifferentiated embryonic connective tissue cavities or on the surface of the body, as does epithelial tissue. It consists of irregularly shaped Furthermore, connective tissue is embryonically derived from cells surrounded by large amounts of a homogeneous, jellylike mesoderm, whereas epithelial tissue derives from ectoderm, matrix (fig. In general, however, the its embryonic migration to a predetermined destination, it differ- various types are named according to the kind and arrangement entiates into all other kinds of connective tissue. The following are the basic kinds of connective Some mesenchymal-like tissue persists past the embryonic tissues: period in certain sites within the body. Good examples are the undifferentiated cells that surround blood vessels and form fi- A. Loose (areolar) connective tissue Another kind of prenatal connective tissue exists only in 2. Dense regular connective tissue the fetus (the fetal period is from 9 weeks to birth) and is called 3. Dense irregular connective tissue mucous connective tissue or Wharton’s jelly. Cartilage Connective tissue proper has a loose, flexible matrix, frequently 1. Blood (vascular tissue) Wharton’s jelly: from Thomas Wharton, English anatomist, 1614–73 Van De Graaff: Human III. Histology © The McGraw−Hill Anatomy, Sixth Edition of the Body Companies, 2001 Chapter 4 Histology 91 Pectoralis major muscle Elastic fiber Collagenous fiber Mast cell Fibroblast (b) (c) Paras (a) Fascia FIGURE 4. Fibroblasts Six basic types of connective tissue proper are generally are large, star-shaped cells that produce collagenous (ko˘-laj′e˘- recognized. These tissues are distinguished by the consistency of nus), elastic, and reticular (re˘-tik′yoo-lar) fibers. Collagenous the ground substance and the type and arrangement of the rein- fibers are composed of a protein called collagen (kol′a˘-jen); they forcement fibers. Elastic fibers are composed of a protein called elastin, which provides certain tis- Loose Connective (Areolar) Tissue sues with elasticity. Collagenous and elastic fibers may be either Loose connective tissue is distributed throughout the body as a sparse and irregularly arranged, as in loose connective tissue, or binding and packing material. It binds the skin to the underlying tightly packed, as in dense connective tissue. Tissues with loosely muscles and is highly vascular, providing nutrients to the skin. It also surrounds blood vessels and form the binding and supportive connective tissues of the body. Spe- Resilience in tissues that contain elastic fibers is extremely im- cialized cells called mast cells are dispersed throughout the loose portant for several physical functions of the body. Mast cells produce he- example, that elastic fibers are found in the walls of large arteries and in the walls of the lower respiratory passageways.

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The A2A antagonist KF1787 has also been found to improve the motor impairment in marmosets after MPTP while the non-selective adenosine antagonist theophylline augmented levodopa effects in Parkinsonian patients cheap extra super viagra 200mg online. Whether these responses reflect a specific effect in the striatum is unclear but in order to be effective generic extra super viagra 200 mg on-line, these drugs would require ongoing adenosine activity which, it must be remembered, is mainly depressant on neurons. The role of the A1 receptor, more concentrated on GABA/SP neurons and linked to D1 receptors, is even less clear although there is evidence that these two adenosine receptors have reciprocal effects. Whether A1 activation would result in 318 NEUROTRANSMITTERS, DRUGS AND BRAIN FUNCTION reduced activity of the Dir Path and possibly alleviate levodopa-induced dyskinesias remains to be seen, but it does counteract D1-driven GABA release in that pathway. Summary of therapy Apart from dopamine many NTs such as glutamate, GABA, various peptides, adenosine and ACh are all involved in striatal function but their wide distribution in the CNS makes it difficult to restrict any manipulation of their activity to the striatum after systemic drug administration. By contrast, the unique loss of DA in PD and its relative restriction to the striatum makes it more amenable to manipulation and augmenting dopamine function is currently the only realistic and effective therapy for PD. Nevertheless, increasing knowledge of basal ganglia circuitry and modifying other NTs involved could lead to some improvement in overall therapy while DA-based therapy itself could be improved. The swings in response to levodopa might be avoided by using DA agonists that are not simply the most potent and specific for D2 receptors, as this may overcompensate for DA loss, while if levodopa-induced dyskinesias depend on D1 receptor stimulation then using levodopa with a D1 antagonist or partial agonist might overcome them. Foetal mesencephalic tissue has been implanted in the striatum of PD patients and it survives sufficiently for axons to extend, branch and innervate neurons. Experimental studies show DA is formed and in patients PET scans show increased fluorodopa uptake, some function is restored and the dose of levodopa can be reduced. Although DA release cannot be measured directly in patients, there is in fact indirect evidence for it from studies in one transplant patient (Piccini et al. These showed that 10 years after a graft into one putamen the number of D2 receptors there as measured by PET scans of the binding of the specific D antagonist (11C) raclopride was normal but upregulated (by 44%) in the non-grafted 2 putamen. Since postsynaptic DA receptors are known to increase in number if DA release is reduced this was taken to indicate that DA release was still reduced on the untreated side but restored to normal on the graft side. Also amphetamine, which releases DA to compete with and reduce raclopride binding, did this more effectively on the grafted side Ð another indication of greater DA release. Unfortunately transplants require 6±7 foetal brains to obtain enough transplantable material for one patient, which itself raises ethical considerations, and as the tissue cannot diffuse its influence is restricted, even with multiple injection sites, and only a fraction (approx. Also without knowledge of the cause of PD the transplant could meet the same fate as the original neurons. The concept, however, demands perseverance and a number of variants are being tried. Some ethical and practical concerns may be overcome by the use of porcine rather than human foetal cells and their potential is on trial. Certainly xenotransplants can survive in the human brain partly because it does not show the same immunoreactivity as the rest of the body but recipients will still require some immunosuppressant drugs. Attempts are also being made, with some success, to expand mesencephalic dopamine DISEASES OF THE BASAL GANGLIA 319 neurons in vitro by the use of nerve growth factors, and so produce large numbers for transplant. Non-neuronal transplants such as adrenal chromaffin cells have been tried but do not survive although some L-dopa-producing cell lines (e. PC12) or glomus cells of the carotid body do produce DA in vivo and may provide the equivalent of a continuous infusion of dopa (and DA) directly into the brain. Expression of tyrosine hydroxylase to promote dopa and DA synthesis in striatal cells by direct gene transfer in vivo or in cultures for subsequent transplanting, may also be possible. The same effect could be achieved quite specifically and permanently by lesioning the SThN or GP. Surprisingly, stimulation of SThN and GP through chronically implanted electrodes is also effective but since this required high-frequency stimulation (100 Hz) it is possible that this is blocking rather than initiating impulse flow and is like a temporary lesion. AETIOLOGY AND PREVENTION If the symptoms of PD arise when nigra cell loss results in a particular depletion of striatal DA (e. Fortunately this is not the case as many people can reach 90 or 100 years without developing PD. In fact, PM studies show that in normal subjects nigra DA cell loss proceeds at 4±5% per 10 years but in PD sufferers it occurs at almost ten times this level (Fearnley and Lees 1991). Thus either the gradual loss of nigral cells and striatal DA is accelerated for some reason in certain people, so that these markers fall to below 50% of normal around 55± 60 years, or some people experience a specific event (or events) during life which acutely reduces DA concentration.

Each region contains internal or- gans order 200mg extra super viagra with amex, the locations of which are anatomically and clinically important cheap extra super viagra 200mg free shipping. Objective 11 List the regions of the body and the principal local areas that make up each region. Objective 12 Explain why it is important to be able to describe the body areas and regions in which major internal organs are located. The human body is divided into several regions that can be identified on the surface of the body. Learning the terms that refer to these regions now will make it easier to learn the names of underlying structures later. The major body regions are the head, neck, trunk, upper extremity, and lower extremity (fig. The identifying names for specific surface regions of the face are based on associated organs—for example, the orbital (eye), nasal (nose), oral (mouth), and auricular (ear) regions—or underlying bones—for example, FIGURE 2. Neck The neck, referred to as the cervical region, supports the head and permits it to move. Listening to the sounds that various organs ing the neck region can be found in chapter 10. One test of a reflex mecha- Trunk nism involves tapping a predetermined tendon with a reflex hammer and noting the response. The trunk, or torso, is the portion of the body to which the neck and upper and lower extremities attach. Discuss the value of CT scans in making a clinical assessment Thorax of a visceral organ. What do we mean when we say that directional terms are referred to as the chest. The mammary region of the thorax sur- relative and must be used in reference to a body structure rounds the nipple and in sexually mature females is enlarged as or a body in anatomical position? Body Organization and © The McGraw−Hill Anatomy, Sixth Edition Organization, and the Anatomical Nomenclature Companies, 2001 Human Organism 36 Unit 2 Terminology, Organization, and the Human Organism TABLE 2. Inferior (caudal) Away from the head; toward the bottom The neck is inferior to the head. Anterior (ventral) Toward the front The navel is on the anterior side of the body. Posterior (dorsal) Toward the back The kidneys are posterior to the intestine. Lateral Away from the midline of the body The ears are lateral to the nose. Internal (deep) Away from the surface of the body The brain is internal to the cranium. External (superficial) Toward the surface of the body The skin is external to the muscles. The axilla becomes important when exam- The armpit is called the axillary fossa, or simply the axilla, and ining for infected lymph nodes. When fitting a patient for crutches, a physician will instruct the patient to avoid supporting the weight of the surrounding area, the axillary region. The vertebral region the body on the axillary region because of the possibility of damag- extends the length of the back, following the vertebral column. Easily identified surface landmarks are helpful in assessing the condition of these organs. Centered on the front of the abdomen, the umbilicus (navel) is an obvious land- mark. Body Organization and © The McGraw−Hill Anatomy, Sixth Edition Organization, and the Anatomical Nomenclature Companies, 2001 Human Organism Chapter 2 Body Organization and Anatomical Nomenclature 37 Cephalic (head) Cranial Frontal (forehead) (surrounding the brain) Nasal (nose) Orbital (eye) Buccal Occipital Oral (mouth) Posterior (back of head) (cheek) thoracic Cervical (neck) Mental (chin) Posterior neck Shoulder Sternal Shoulder Axillary (armpit) Pectoral region Vertebral Mammary (breast) (chest) (spinal column) Anterior Brachial (arm) Brachial (arm) cubital Abdominal (cubital Antecubital fossa) Posterior (front of elbow) cubital (elbow) Inguinal Abdominal (groin) (abdomen) Lumbar Coxal (lower back) Antebrachial (hip) (forearm) Sacral Gluteal (buttock) Carpal (wrist) Dorsum of Palmar (palm) the hand Digital (finger) Perineal Femoral Pubic Femoral (thigh) (thigh) region Knee Popliteal fossa (back of knee) Anterior crural (leg) Posterior crural (leg) Tarsal (ankle) Dorsum of the foot Plantar (sole) (a) (b) FIGURE 2. The center of the back side of the abdomen, cating the sites of pains, tumors, or other abnormalities. The sacral region is located further down, at the point where the Pelvic Region vertebral column terminates. This region is a common injection The pelvic region forms the lower portion of the trunk. Body Organization and © The McGraw−Hill Anatomy, Sixth Edition Organization, and the Anatomical Nomenclature Companies, 2001 Human Organism 38 Unit 2 Terminology, Organization, and the Human Organism Right Epigastric Left hypochondriac region hypochondriac region region Right Umbilical Left lateral region lateral abdominal abdominal region region Right Hypogastric Left inguinal region inguinal region region FIGURE 2. The upper vertical planes are positioned lateral to the rectus abdo- minis muscles, the upper horizontal plane is positioned at the level of the rib cage, and the lower horizontal plane is even with the upper border of the hipbones.

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