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Fick’s law of diffusion determines the amount of gas moves across the tissue is proportional to the area of the tissue but inversely proportional to its thickness generic zovirax 800 mg. This is achieved by wrapping the pulmonary capillaries around an enormous number of small air sacs generic zovirax 800 mg on line, alveoli, and each about 1/3 mm in diameter. There are about 300 million alveoli in the human 2 lung, creating 85 m surface area but having a volume of only 4 L. Calculations of Oxygen and Carbon Dioxide Partial Pressures: Dalton’s Law: Total pressure of a gas mixture (in our case air) is equal to the sum of the pressures that each gas in the mixture would have independently (Partial Pressure of each gas). However when the inspired air arrived the alveoli it is normally saturated with water vapour. The other extreme example is nitrous oxide: Nitrous oxide diffuses across the barrier but forms no combination with Hb. The amount of nitrous oxide taken up by blood depends on the amount of blood available: perfusion limited. During exercise the pulmonary blood flow is increased and the average travel time of a red blood cell in the capillary is shortened. It begins at the main pulmonary artery, which receives the mixed venous blood pumped by the right ventricle. Each time the airway branches, the arterial tree branches that the two parallel each other. The oxygenated blood is collected from the capillary bed by the pulmonary vein, which drains into the left atrium. In addition, pulmonary vessels protect the body from obstruction of important vessels in other organs such as renal or cerebral vessels. The pulmonary circulation serves as a blood reservoir and the volume in the lung capillaries is approximately equal to the stroke volume of the right heart. The pressures in the pulmonary circulation are remarkably low: The pressure in the main pulmonary artery is 25 mm Hg (systolic) and 8 mm Hg (diastolic), in average 15 mm Hg. Another striking property of the pulmonary arteries is their exceedingly thin walls. This anatomical adaptation of the lung is critically important for its function: The lung is required to receive the 24 whole of the cardiac output at all times. Keeping the pulmonary pressure as low as possible allows the right heart answer this demand with a minimum work. Unlike the systemic capillaries, which are organised as tubular network with some interconnections, the pulmonary capillaries mesh together in the alveolar wall so the blood flows as a thin sheet (capillary bed). Another unique property of the pulmonary circulation is its ability to decrease resistance as cardiac output increases. Capillary recruitment: opening of initially closed capillaries when cardiac output increases. Capillary distension: The decrease in pulmonary pressure with increased cardiac output has several beneficial effects: It (1) minimise the load on the right heart, (2) prevents pulmonary oedema, (3) maintains the adequate flow rate of the blood in the capillary and (4) increases the capillary surface area. Dissolved Oxygen: The amount of oxygen dissolved in the blood is proportional to its partial pressure (Henry’s Law). Taking 25 in to account that the tissue requirements are about 3000 ml Oxygen/min, it is obvious that this way of transporting oxygen is not adequate for human. Differences in the amino acid sequence of these chains give rise to various types of Hb. Hb-A: Normal adult Hb Hb-F: Foetal Hb, which makes part of the total Hb at birth and is gradually, replaced by Hb-A. Deoxygenated form of this Hb is poorly soluble and crystallises in the erythrocytes which results in changes in red cell shape (crescent or sickle shaped red cells are seen in the blood stream). The fragility of the red cells is increased and there is a tendency to thrombus formation. In the centre of each heme group there is one atom of iron, which can combine with one oxygen molecule. O2 + Hb £ HbO2 (oxyhemoglobin) 26 When oxyhemoglobin dissociates to release oxygen to the tissues (the heme iron is still in ferrous form) and the Hb is called deoxyhemoglobin (reduced Hb). Oxyhemoglobin is not same with oxidised +++ Hb (or methemoglobin) in which iron is in the oxidised (Fe , ferric) form. Because methemoglobin lacks the electron necessary to bind oxygen, it does not participate in oxygen transport. When the Hb concentration is high, polycythemia, the oxygen carrying capacity of the blood is increased.

The various types of mycolic acids trusted 800 mg zovirax, previously saponified discount 400 mg zovirax with visa, extracted and derivat- ized to bromophenacyl esters, are separated in the column and eluted at different times. On the basis of individual ultraviolet absorbance, the detector plots single fractions as peaks arranged in a profile. The profile of each species is sufficiently different from those of other species (Figure 14-30) to provide identification when visually compared with profiles of known mycobacteria (Butler 1988, Butler 1991, Butler 2001, Tortoli 1996). A fluorescence-based detection system may also be used that is more sensitive than the ultraviolet-based system. The number of species hardly differentiable or not distinguishable at all, which was insignificant until a few years ago, has recently increased, due to the continuous description of new species, in particular, of rapidly growing mycobacteria. Evaluation of the upgraded amplified Mycobacterium tuberculosis direct test (Gen-Probe) for direct detection of Mycobacte- rium tuberculosis in respiratory and non-respiratory specimens. Luciferase reporter mycobacte- riophages for detection, identification, and antibiotic susceptibility testing of Mycobacte- rium tuberculosis in Mexico. Multicentre study of a commercial, automated polymerase chain reaction system for the rapid detection of Mycobacterium tuberculosis in respiratory specimens in routine clinical practice. Mycolic acid analysis by high-performance liquid chromatogra- phy for identification of Mycobacterium species. Identification of major slowly growing pathogenic mycobacteria and Mycobacterium gordonae by high-performance liquid chromatography of their my- colic acids. Conditionally replicating luciferase reporter phages: improved sensitivity for rapid detection and assessment of drug susceptibility of Mycobacterium tuberculosis. Rapid, efficient detection and drug susceptibility testing of Mycobacterium tuberculosis in sputum by microscopic observation of broth cultures. Rapid molecular diagnosis of tuberculous meningitis using the Gen-probe Amplified Mycobacterium Tuberculosis direct test in a large Canadian public health laboratory. A comprehensive evaluation of performance, laboratory appli- cation, and clinical usefulness of two direct amplification technologies for the detection of Mycobacterium tuberculosis complex. Comparative evaluation of initial and new versions of the Gen-Probe Amplified Mycobacterium tuberculosis Direct Test for direct detection of Mycobacterium tuberculosis in respiratory and nonrespiratory specimens. Comparison of Amplicor, in-house polymerase chain reaction, and conventional culture for the diagnosis of tuberculosis in children. Rapid differentiation between clinically relevant mycobacteria in microscopy positive clinical specimens and myco- bacterial isolates by line probe assay. Use of equivocal zone in interpretation of results of the Amplified Mycobacterium tuberculosis Direct Test for diagnosis of tuberculosis. Genotypic identification of mycobacteria by nucleic acid sequence determination: report of a 2-year experience in a clinical labora- tory. Analysis of mycolic acid cleavage prod- ucts and cellular fatty acids of Mycobacterium species by capillary gas chromatography. Gas chromatographic fatty acids profiles for charac- terization of mycobacteria: an interlaboratory methodological evaluation. Comparison of two bacteriophage tests and nucleic acid amplification for the diagnosis of pulmonary tuberculosis in sub-Saharan Af- rica. Assessment of partial sequencing of the 65-kiloDalton heat shock protein gene (hsp65) for routine identification of mycobacterium species isolated from clinical sources. Microcolony detection in 7H11 thin layer culture is an alternative for rapid diagnosis of Mycobacterium tuberculosis infection. Evaluation of a commercial line probe assay for identification of Mycobacterium species from liquid and solid culture. Differentiation of Mycobacterium, Nocar- dia, and related taxa by thin-layer chromatographic analysis of whole-organism metha- nolysates. Identification of mycobacteria from cul- ture using the Gen-Probe rapid diagnostic system for Mycobacterium avium complex and Mycobacterium tuberculosis complex. Evaluation of Gen-Probe Ampli- fied Mycobacterium tuberculosis Direct Test by using respiratory and nonrespiratory specimens in a tertiary care centre laboratory. Relevance of commercial amplification methods for direct detection of Mycobacterium tuberculosis complex in clinical samples. Performance assessment of two commercial amplification assays for direct detection of Mycobacterium tuberculosis complex from respiratory and extrapulmonary specimens. Detection of Mycobacterium tuber- culosis complex in sputum specimens by the automated Roche Cobas Amplicor Myco- bacterium tuberculosis test. Evaluation of a rapid culture method for tuber- culosis diagnosis: a Latin American multicentre study.

The person should preferably be trained in basic neonatal care / neonatal resuscitation methods purchase zovirax 400mg with mastercard, handling medical equipment like those required for airway maintenance / suction etc discount zovirax 200mg without a prescription. Pre-operative Preparation - This will by and large depend on the condition of the baby and if any pre- existing morbidity is present and will be handled by the neonatologist. Operative plan - This will depend on the diagnosis made about the level of obstruction. Post-operative Care - This will again have to be tailored to suit the child’s condition and requirements. Explorations for complications like anastomotic leak, adhesive obstruction / dehiscence 4. Other events during hospitalisation complicating the clinical course during hospitalisation = like renal failure, nutritional support, colostomy / ileostomy care etc. Maternal support during hospitalisation including rooming in while feeding is initiated d) Referral criteria: a. Even within the metro cities, as there are several levels of hospital care available, we recommend that new born babies with surgical problem should be handled by only those hospitals with reasonably good neonatal care (level 2 & 3) facilities with the availability of qualified Pediatric Surgeon and an experienced pediatric anesthetist. However, depending on the nature of the disease and the general condition of the baby, decision may be taken to handle the baby in centres with less than optimal facilities in Metro cities if there is a genuinely good cause to believe that good surgical and post-operative care can be extended to the child without much detriment to the baby c. In any situation, after the initial resuscitation, if the general condition of the baby is poor or if there is a possible necessity of ventilatory support or specialised treatment, it will be necessary to shift the baby to a higher centre where such facilities are available, ensuring safe transportation of the baby 17. Early involvement of a pediatric surgeon and regular co-ordination with him/ her 3. Carry out the orders of the Pediatrician / Pediatric Surgeon in charge of the patient 3. To ensure that all the orders are properly carried out by the nursing and other paramendical personnel 4. Prompt assessment of the baby on referral and to formulate an appropriate plan of action 2. Co-ordinating with the anesthetist and the other Operation Theatre personnel for the proposed surgery 3. Performing the appropriate surgery and to make reasonable efforts for a smooth post- operative recovery. Post-operative care & Daily assessment with regard to the post-operative recovery 5. Take decisions with regard to the daily progress and further interventions as and when indicated iv. Early involvement of a pediatric surgeon and regular co-ordination with him/ her 3. Improper and inadequate management of seizures could be one of the major reasons behind this phenomenon. Myoclonic seizures carry the worst prognosis in terms of neuro- developmental outcome and seizure recurrence. Common metabolic causes of seizures include hypoglycemia, hypocalcemia, and hypomagnesemia. Cerebral dysgenesis and neuronal migration disorders are rare 99 causes of seizures in the neonatal period. Screening and management of polycythemia and hypoglycemia can prevent seizure occurrence due to these reasons. Avoiding animal mlk feeding by exclusive breastfeeding may reduce seizures due to late onset hypocalcemia. History Seizure history: A complete description of the seizure should be obtained from the parents/attendant. History of associated eye movements, restraint of episode by passive flexion of the affected limb, change in color of skin (mottling or cyanosis), autonomic phenomena, and whether the infant was conscious or sleeping at the time of seizure should be elicited. The day of life on which the seizures occurred may provide an important clue to its diagnosis. While seizures occurring on day 0-3 might be related to 100 perinatal asphyxia, intracranial hemorrhage, and metabolic causes, those occurring on day 4-7 may be due to sepsis, meningitis, metabolic causes, and developmental defects.

Prone ventilation reduces mortality in patients with acute respiratory failure and severe hypoxemia: systematic review and meta-analysis discount zovirax 400 mg. Its presentation is rapid buy zovirax 200mg visa, dramatic and frequently leads to death over the course of a few days in the absence of emergency liver transplantation. In developed countries, liver transplantation has revolutionized the prognosis of this disease and survival rates are in the range of 59 to 79%, with liver transplantation. The other etiologies with very poor prognosis include acute hepatitis B (and other non-hepatitis A viral infections), autoimmune hepatitis, Wilson’s disease and Budd-Chiari syndrome. Differential diagnosis Differential diagnosis includes severe malaria, leptospirosis, rickettsial diseases, enteric fever, and Hanta virus infection. Clinical signs suggestive of increasing intracranial pressure include worsening of hepatic encephalopathy, systemic hypertension and bradycardia (Cushing reflex), altered pupillary reflexes and decerebrate rigidity. A record of intake and output should be maintained and a positive balance of no more than 500 ml is acceptable. In addition, respiratory support and mechanical ventilation should be provided for those with inadequate respiratory effort. Continuous modes of dialysis such as continuous veno-venous hemofiltration are better as hemodynamic stability is maintained and fluctuations in intracranial pressure are avoided. Total parenteral nutrition may be considered, in case enteral nutrition is not tolerated or there are contraindications. Bleeding Replacement therapy for thrombocytopenia and/or prolonged prothrombin time is recommended only in the setting of hemorrhage or prior to invasive procedures. Criteria for referral for liver transplant Several prognostic indicators suggest a high likelihood of mortality and in these patients, liver transplantation is the only option. Fulminant hepatitis in a tropical population: Clinical course, cause, and early predictors of outcome. Introduction: It is important to recognize and diagnose brain death especially in patients who are potential organ donors. Early diagnosis, documentation and initiation of the organ donation process and appropriate management of brain-dead organ donorsforms an important part of intensive care unit management. Definition Brain death is defined as the irreversible loss of all function of the brain, including the brainstem. The three essential findings to confirm brain death are coma (known irreversible cause), absence of brainstem reflexes, and apnea. Once brain death criteria are met a person clinically determined to be brain dead is legally dead in the context of organ donation under the Transplantation of Human Organ Act 1994. No other tests are required if the full clinical examination, including each of two assessments of brain stem reflexes and a single apnea test, are conclusively performed. In the absence of either complete clinical findings consistent with brain death, or confirmatory tests demonstrating brain death, brain death cannot be diagnosed. Brain death test  Sufficient time period has been passed to exclude possibility of possible recovery of meaningful neurological function, several hours to days as per clinical factors. Ocular movement  Absent oculocephalic reflex (doll’s eye )  Absent cold caloric responses (vestibulo-ocular reflex) Absent Facial sensory and motor response Absent Pharyngeal reflex and Tracheal reflex  Absence of gag reflex. Observation period between two examination Depends on the age of the patient;  7 days to 2 month old minimum 48 hr interval. Communication with family and further decision making After the clinical criteria of brain death have been met, the physician should inform the next of kin, who can be approached about organ donation. Counseling  The family should be counseled that the patient cannot recover  Family should be counseled for organ donation  If the patient cannot become an organ donor, withholding or withdrawing of life support may be discussed with the family. Referral Criteria  If the patient is a potential organ donor, he should be transferred to a tertiary level centre that is certified by the competent authority and is capable of supporting the brain dead organ donor  If in some cases further diagnostic studies are required to confirm brain death o Difficulty to determine coma. Supportive treatment should start early as soon as brain death has been recognized irrespective of the consent. Switch the focus of the management for elevated intracranial pressure and brain protection, to preservation of organ function and optimization of tissue oxygen delivery. Hemodynamic support Hypertension  Hypertension and bradycardia preceding brain death characterize the Cushing’s response.