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The problems are first midamor 45mg without a prescription, that it has proved to be difficult to rigorously test Freudian theory because the predictions that it makes (particularly those regarding defense mechanisms) are often vague and unfalsifiable purchase midamor 45mg online, and second, that the aspects of the theory that can be tested often have not received much empirical support. As examples, although Freud claimed that children exposed to overly harsh toilet training would become fixated in the anal stage and thus be prone to excessive neatness, stinginess, and stubbornness in adulthood, research has found few reliable associations between toilet training [6] practices and adult personality (Fisher & Greenberg, 1996). And since the time of Freud, the need to repress sexual desires would seem to have become much less necessary as societies have tolerated a wider variety of sexual practices. And yet the psychological disorders that Freud thought we caused by this repression have not decreased. There is also little scientific support for most of the Freudian defense mechanisms. For example, studies have failed to yield evidence for the existence of repression. People who are exposed to traumatic experiences in war have been found to remember their traumas only too well [7] (Kihlstrom, 1997). Although we may attempt to push information that is anxiety-arousing into our unconscious, this often has the ironic effect of making us think about the information even [8] more strongly than if we hadn‘t tried to repress it (Newman, Duff, & Baumeister, 1997). It is true that children remember little of their childhood experiences, but this seems to be true of both negative as well as positive experiences, is true for animals as well, and probably is better Attributed to Charles Stangor Saylor. On the other hand, Freud‘s important idea that expressing or talking through one‘s difficulties can be psychologically helpful has been supported in current research (Baddeley & [9] Pennebaker, 2009) and has become a mainstay of psychological therapy. A particular problem for testing Freudian theories is that almost anything that conflicts with a prediction based in Freudian theory can be explained away in terms of the use of a defense mechanism. A man who expresses a lot of anger toward his father may be seen via Freudian theory to be experiencing the Oedipus complex, which includes conflict with the father. But a man who expresses no anger at all toward the father also may be seen as experiencing the Oedipus complex by repressing the anger. Because Freud hypothesized that either was possible, but did not specify when repression would or would not occur, the theory is difficult to falsify. In terms of the important role of the unconscious, Freud seems to have been at least in part correct. More and more research demonstrates that a large part of everyday behavior is driven by [10] processes that are outside our conscious awareness (Kihlstrom, 1987). And yet, although our unconscious motivations influence every aspect of our learning and behavior Freud probably overestimated the extent to which these unconscious motivations are primarily sexual and aggressive. Taken together, it is fair to say that Freudian theory, like most psychological theories, was not entirely correct and that it has had to be modified over time as the results of new studies have become available. But the fundamental ideas about personality that Freud proposed, as well as the use of talk therapy as an essential component of therapy, are nevertheless still a major part of psychology and are used by clinical psychologists every day. Focusing on the Self: Humanism and Self-Actualization Psychoanalytic models of personality were complemented during the 1950s and 1960s by the theories of humanistic psychologists. In contrast to the proponents of psychoanalysis, humanists Attributed to Charles Stangor Saylor. Arguing that people are free to choose their own lives and make their own decisions, humanistic psychologists focused on the underlying motivations that they believed drove personality, focusing on the nature of the self-concept,the set of beliefs about who we are, and self-esteem, our positive feelings about the self. One of the most important humanists, Abraham Maslow (1908–1970), conceptualized personality in terms of a pyramid-shaped hierarchy of motives(Figure 11. At the base of the pyramid are the lowest-level motivations, including hunger and thirst, and safety and belongingness. Maslow argued that only when people are able to meet the lower-level needs are they able to move on to achieve the higher-level needs of self- esteem, and eventually self-actualization, which is the motivation to develop our innate potential to the fullest possible extent. Maslow studied how successful people, including Albert Einstein, Abraham Lincoln, Martin Luther King Jr. Maslow (1970) believed that self-actualized people are creative, spontaneous, and loving of themselves and others. They tend to have a few deep friendships rather than many superficial ones, and are generally private.

A thin outer layer of gray matter called the cerebral cortex features folds or convolutions called gyri; furrows and grooves are referred to as sulci buy 45mg midamor amex, and deeper grooves are called fissures purchase 45mg midamor mastercard. Each hemi- sphere has a set of controls for sensory and motor activities of the body. Interestingly, it’s not just right-side/left-side controls that are reversed in the cerebrum; the upper areas of the cerebral cortex control the lower body activities while the lower areas of the cortex control upper-body activities in a reversal called “little man upside down. The corpus callosum Chapter 15: Feeling Jumpy: The Nervous System 247 physically unites the two hemispheres and is the largest and densest mass of commis- sural fibers. Different functional areas of the cerebral cortex are divided into lobes: Frontal lobe: The seat of intelligence, memory, and idea association Parietal lobe: Functions in the sensations of temperature, touch, and sense of position and movement as well as the perception of size, shape, and weight Temporal lobe: Is responsible for perception and correlation of acoustical stimuli Occipital lobe: Handles visual perception Medulla The medulla, the region interior to the cortex, is composed of white matter that con- sists of three groups of fibers. Projection fibers carry impulses afferently from the brain stem to the cortex and efferently from the cortex to the lower parts of the central nerv- ous system. Association fibers originate in the cortical cells and carry impulses to the other areas of the cortex on the same hemisphere. Ventricles The brain’s four ventricles are cavities and canals filled with cerebrospinal fluid. The lateral ventricles com- municate with the third ventricle through the foramen of Monro. The third ventricle is connected by the cerebral aqueduct to the fourth ventricle, which is continuous with the central canal of the spinal cord and contains openings to the meninges. The fourth ventricle has openings that allow fluid to enter into the subarachnoid spaces. Lining the ventricles is a thin layer of epithelial cells known as ependyma, or the ependymal layer. Along with a network of capillaries from the pia mater, the ependyma and capillaries form the choroid plexus, which is the source of cerebrospinal fluid. The choroid plexus of each lateral ventricle produces the greatest amount of fluid. Fluid formed by the choroid plexus filters out by osmosis (refer to Chapter 2) and circulates through the ventricles. Fluid is returned to the blood through the arachnoid villi, finger-like projections of the arachnoid meninx, which absorbs the fluid. Twelve pairs of cranial nerves connect to the central nervous system via the brain (as opposed to the 31 pairs that connect via the spinal cord). Check out Table 15-1 for a listing of all the nerves, and then read on for a memory tool. That’s a mouthful, but students have come up with a number of memory tools to remember them. Our favorite is: Old Opera Organs Trill Terrific Arias For Various Grand Victories About History. Unmyelinated fibers, cell bodies, and neuroglia Part V: Mission Control: All Systems Go 250 44. The part of the brain that contains the thalamus, pituitary gland, and the optic chiasm is the a. Use the terms that follow to identify the parts of the brain shown in Figure 15-3. Fourth ventricle Chapter 15: Feeling Jumpy: The Nervous System 251 51 _____ 62 _____ 52 _____ 53 _____ 54 _____ 55 _____ 61 _____ 56 _____ 57 _____ 60 _____ Figure 15-3: Sagittal 59 _____ 58 _____ view of the brain. Wolters Kluwer Health — Lippincott Williams &Wilkins Taking Side Streets: The Peripheral Nervous System The peripheral nervous system is the network that carries information to and from the spinal cord. Among its key structures are 31 pairs of spinal nerves (see Figure 15-4), each originating in a segment of the spinal cord called a neuromere. Eight of the spinal nerve pairs are cervical (having to do with the neck), 12 are thoracic (relating to the chest, or thorax), five are lumbar (between the lowest ribs and the pelvis), five are sacral (the posterior section of the pelvis), and one is coccygeal (relating to the tail- bone). Spinal nerves connect with the spinal cord by two bundles of nerve fibers, or roots. The dorsal root contains afferent fibers that carry sensory information from receptors to the central nervous system. The cell bodies of these sensory neurons lie outside the spinal cord in a bulging area called the dorsal root ganglion (refer to the cross-section of the spinal cord in Figure 15-2). A second bundle, the ventral root, con- tains efferent motor fibers with cell bodies that lie inside the spinal cord.

Source Major sesquiterpenes Common name Botanical name (Family) German chamomile Matricaria recutita (Asteraceae) Àa-bisabolol and its derivatives Feverfew Tanacetum parthenium Farnesene midamor 45 mg lowest price, germacrene D order 45 mg midamor fast delivery, (Asteraceae) parthenolide Qinghao Artemisia annua (Asteraceae) Artemisinin and its derivatives Holy thistle Cnicus benedictus (Asteraceae) Cnicin Cinnamon Cinnamomum zeylanicum b-caryophyllene (Lauraceae) Cloves Syzygium aromaticum b-caryophyllene (Myrtaceae) Hop Humulus lupulus (Cannabaceae) Humulene Wormseed Artemisia cinia (Asteraceae) a-santonin Valerian Valeriana officinalis Valeranone (Valerianaceae) Juniper berries Juniperus communis a-cadinene (Cupressaceae) Curcuma or Cucuma longa Curcumenone, curcumabranol turmeric (Zingiberaceae) A, curcumabranol B, b-elemene, curzerenone 6. One of the simplest and most significant of the diterpenes is phytol, a reduced form of geranylgeraniol, which constitutes the lipophilic side-chain of the chlorophylls. Vitamin A is also a 20-carbon-containing compound, and can be regarded as a diterpene. Among the medicinally important diterpenes, paclitaxel, isolated from Taxus brevifolia (family Taxaceae), is one of the most successful anticancer drugs of modern time. The following table presents just a few of these sources, and their major diterpenoidal components. Two molecules of farnesyl pyrophosphate are joined tail-to-tail to yield squalene. The conformation that all-trans-squalene 2,3-epoxide adopts, when the initial cyclization takes place, determines the stereochemistry of the ring junctions in the resulting triterpenoids. The initially formed cation intermediate may undergo a series of 1,2-hydride and methyl migrations, commonly called backbone rearrangements, to provide a variety of skeletal types. For example, fusidic acid is an antimicrobial fungal metabolite, isolated from Fusidium coccineum, and cytotoxic dimeric triterpenoids, crellastatins, are isolated from marine sponges Crella species. Within these cyclic triterpe- noids distinct structural variations lead to several structural classes of triterpenoids. The following table presents just a few of these sources, and their major triterpenoidal components. Source Major diterpenes Common name Botanical name (Family) Fusidium Fusidium coccineum Fusidic acid Ganoderma Ganoderma lucidum Lanosterol Dammar resin Balanocarpus heimii Dammarenediols (Dipterocarpaceae) Ginseng Panax ginseng (Araliaceae) Dammarenediols Lupin Lupinus luteus (Fabaceae) Lupeol Quillaia Quillaja saponaria (Rosaceae) Quillaic acid 6. Chemistry of vision: role of vitamin A b-carotene is converted to vitamin A1 (retinol) in our liver. It is oxidized to an aldehyde called all-trans-retinal, and then isomerized to produce 11-cis-retinal, which is the light-sensitive pigment present in the visual systems of all living beings. Rod and cone cells are the light sensitive receptor cells in the retina of the human eye. About three million rod cells are responsible for our vision in dim light, whereas the hundred million cone cells are responsible for our vision in the bright light and for the perception of bright colours. This cis–trans isomerization is accompanied by an alteration in molecular geometry, which generates a nerve impulse to be sent to the brain, resulting in the perception of vision. Well, all these drugs and many other important drugs belong to the class of compounds called steroids. They are synthesized in glands and delivered by the bloodstream to target tissues to stimulate or inhibit some process. Their nonpolar character allows them to cross cell membranes, so they can leave the cells in which they are synthesized and enter their target cells. Hundreds of distinct steroids have been identified in plants, animals and fungi, and most of them have interesting biological activity. They have a common basic ring structures, three-fused cyclohexane rings, together the phenanthrene part, fused to a cyclopentane ring system, known as cyclopentaphenanthrene. The four rings are lettered A, B, C and D, and the carbon atoms are numbered beginning in the A ring as shown in gonane. Androstane Pregnane Cholane A C19 steroid A C21 steroid A C steroid 24 Many steroids have an alcoholic hydroxyl attached to the ring system, and are known as sterols. There are many different steroid hormones, and cholesterol is the precursor for all of them. Barton of Great Britain received the Nobel Prize in 1969 for recognizing that functional groups could vary in reactivity depending on whether they occupied an axial or an equatorial position on a ring (see Chapter 3). All three of the six- membered rings can adopt strain-free chair conformations as shown below. Unlike simple cyclohexane rings, which can undergo chair–chair interconver- sions, steroids, being the large rigid molecules cannot undergo ring-flips. Steroids can have either cis or trans fusion of the A and B rings; both kind of steroid are relatively long, flat molecules but the A, B trans-fused steroids are by far the more common, though cis-fused steroids are found in bile.